History At the same time when many European sailors were navigating to keep an eye fixed towards the shoreline in daylight or depending on dead reckoning by compass, Polynesians were navigating an infinite extent within the Sea. Polynesia comprised islands diffused on top of a triangular area with sides of 4 thousand miles. Your location out of your Hawaiian Islands with the north, to Rapa Nui (Easter Island) around the east as well as Aotearoa (New Zealand) on the free airline was settled by Polynesians. It is actually theorized that Polynesian navigators reached south america not less than century before Europeans, made experience Indigenous peoples in Southern California, introduced chickens to South America and took back sweet potatoes to Polynesia. Between about 3000 and 1000 BC speakers of Austronesian languages spread through island South-East Asia likely at the start from Taiwan, as tribes whose natives had told already have arrived about from mainland South China about 8000 rice into the edges of western Micronesia as well as on into Melanesia. Within the archaeological record there is well-defined traces of the expansion which permit the road it latched onto be followed and dated by having a penetration of certainty. With the mid 2nd millennium BC an exclusive culture appeared suddenly in north-west Melanesia, around the Bismarck Archipelago, the chain of islands forming a superb arch from New Britain in the Admiralty Islands. This culture, termed Lapita, shines inside the Melanesian archeological record, having large permanent villages on beach terraces over the coasts. Particularly characteristic of the Lapita culture is the making of pottery, including many vessels of assorted shapes, some distinguished by fine patterns and motifs pressed within the clay. Just a mere three or four centuries between about 1300 and 900 BC, the Lapita culture spread 6000 km further into the east of your Bismarck Archipelago, until it reached in terms of Tonga and Samoa. In this region, the distinctive Polynesian culture developed. Theories Pre-Columbian get in touch with south america Main article: Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact On the mid-twentieth century, Thor Heyerdahl proposed an innovative theory of Polynesian origins (person that don't win general acceptance), arguing of the fact that Polynesians had migrated from Brazilian on balsa-log boats. The presence on the Cook Islands within the kumara (sweet potato), a plant indigenous to south america, and dating to 1000 AD, was cited as evidence that Americans would've traveled to Oceania. A lot easier explanation posits biological dispersal; plants and/or seeds could float around the Pacific without human contact. A 2007 study published during the Proceedings in the Nas of chicken bones at El Arenal on the Arauco Peninsula, Arauco Province, Chile suggested Oceania-to-America contact. Chickens originated from southern Asia and the Araucana strain of Chile was believed to are already through Spaniards around 1500. However, the bones located in Chile were radiocarbon-dated to between 1304 and 1424, before the documented arrival within the Spanish. DNA sequences taken were exact matches to the of chickens from your same period in American Samoa and Tonga, both over 5000 miles (8000 kilometers) outside of Chile. The genetic sequences were also the same as those found in Hawaii and Easter Island, the closest island at only 2500 miles (4000 kilometers), and unlike any variety of European chicken. Even if this initial report suggested a Polynesian pre-Columbian origin a later report looking at the same specimens concluded: A published, apparently pre-Columbian, Chilean specimen and six pre-European Polynesian specimens also cluster with only one European/Indian subcontinental/Southeast Asian sequences, providing no support in a Polynesian introduction of chickens to South usa. By comparison, sequences from two archaeological sites on Easter Island group that has an uncommon haplogroup from Indonesia, Japan, and China and may represent a genetic signature of your early Polynesian dispersal. Modeling in the potential marine carbon contribution with the Chilean archaeological specimen casts further doubt on claims for pre-Columbian chickens, and definitive proof will have to have further analyses of ancient DNA sequences and radiocarbon and stable isotope data from archaeological excavations within both Chile and Polynesia. In the past Nine years, the dates and anatomical popular features of human remains evident in Mexico and Latin america have led some archaeologists to suggest that those regions were first populated by folks who crossed the Pacific several millennia ahead of Ice Age migrations; in accordance with this theory, these Pre-Siberian American Aborigines would have been either eliminated or absorbed through Siberian immigrants. However, current archaeological evidence for human migration to and settlement of remote Oceania (i.e., the Ocean eastwards with the Solomon Islands) is dated to no prior to approximately 3,500 BP; trans-Pacific contact south america coinciding with or pre-dating the Beringia migrations that is at least 11,500 BP is especially problematic, aside from movement along intercoastal routes. Recently, linguist Kathryn A. Klar of University of California, Berkeley and archaeologist Terry L. Jones of California Polytechnic State University have proposed contacts between Polynesians as well as the Chumash and Gabrielino of Southern California, between 500 and 700. Their primary evidence is comprised of the advanced sewn-plank canoe design, which can be used across the Polynesian Islands, but is unknown in United states except the above tribes. Moreover, the Chumash word for "sewn-plank canoe," tomolo'o, seemed to be produced from kumulaa'au, the Polynesian word for any Redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) logs found in that construction. Polynesian hitting the ground with the prehispanic Mapuche culture in central-south Chile is actually suggested caused by apparently similar cultural traits, including words like toki (stone axes and adzes), hands clubs the same as the Mori wahaika, the sewn-plank canoe as attached to Chiloe island, the curanto earth oven (Polynesian umu) common in southern Chile, fishing techniques for instance stone wall enclosures, a hockey-like game, along with potential parallels. Some strong westerlies and El Nio wind blow straight from central-east Polynesia towards the Mapuche region, between Concepcion and Chiloe. A principal connection from New Zealand may be accomplished, sailing with all the "roaring forties". In 1834, some escapees from Tasmania found Chiloe Island after sailing for 43 days. Post-colonization See also: Ancient Hawaii An understanding of the standard Polynesian ways of navigation was largely lost after hitting the ground with and colonization by Europeans. This left this challenge of accounting for the inclusion of the Polynesians in these isolated and scattered parts of the Pacific. In line with Andrew Sharp, the explorer Captain James Cook, already aware of Charles de Brosse accounts of big categories of Pacific islanders have been driven off course in storms and found themselves tons of miles away with no idea where these folks, encountered through undoubtedly one of his own voyages a castaway list of Tahitians who had become lost sailing in a very gale and blown 100 miles away to kauai of Atiu. Cook wrote the fact that the Atiu incident, "will serve to explain, far better than the thousand conjectures of speculative reasoners, the way the detached portions of our planet, and, essentially, how South Seas, may have been peopled". On his first voyage of Pacific exploration Cook had the services of a Polynesian navigator, Tupaia, who drew a guide the hawaiian islands within 2000 miles radius (with the north and west) of his home island of Ra'iatea. Through the late 19th century to your early 20th century a generous view of Polynesian navigation had be given favor, preparing a much romanticized look at their seamanship, canoes, and navigational expertise. Late nineteenth and early twentieth century writers similar to Abraham Fornander and Stephenson Percy Smith told of heroic Polynesians migrating in great coordinated fleets from Asia far and wide into present-day Polynesia. Experimental research An increasingly sober and analytical view was presented by Andrew Sharp, who amassed loads of evidence to challenge the eroic vision hypothesis, asserting instead that Polynesian maritime expertise was severely limited in exploration knowning that because of this the settlement of Polynesia seemed to be a result of luck, random island sightings, and drifting, and not just as organized voyages of colonization. Thereafter the oral knowledge handed down for generations allowed for eventual mastery of traveling between known locations. Sharp's reassessment caused plenty of controversy and took a stalemate from the romantic and therefore the skeptical views. Because of the mid to late 1960s the time had come to get a new hands-on approach. Anthropologist David Lewis sailed his catamaran from Tahiti to New Zealand using stellar navigation without instruments. Anthropologist and historian Ben Finney built Nalehia, a 40-foot (12 m) replica on the Hawaiian double canoe. Finney tested the canoe in a number of sailing and paddling experiments in Hawaiian waters. All at once, ethnographic research in the Caroline Islands in Micronesia brought to light that traditional stellar navigational methods remained greatly in everyday use there. Your house and testing of canoes inspired by traditional designs, the harnessing of internet data from skilled Micronesian, and voyages using stellar navigation, allowed practical conclusions in regards to the seaworthiness and handling capabilities of traditional Polynesian canoes and allowed a far better knowing of the navigational methods possess quite likely going to have already been applied by the Polynesians and also of the way they, as people, were adapted to seafaring. Recent re-creations of Polynesian voyaging get methods based largely on Micronesian methods and therefore the teachings of one's Micronesian navigator, Mau Piailug. It really is probable the fact that the Polynesian navigators employed a wide variety techniques including using the stars, the movement of ocean currents and wave patterns, mid-air and sea interference patterns the result of islands and atolls, the flight of birds, the winds together with the weather. Scientists think that long-distance Polynesian voyaging followed the seasonal paths of birds. Usually there are some references of their oral traditions towards the flight of birds many point out that there were range marks onshore pointing to distant islands in keeping with these flyways. A voyage from Tahiti, the Tuamotus or the Cook Islands to New Zealand could have followed the migration with the Long-tailed Cuckoo (Eudynamys taitensis) nearly as the voyage from Tahiti to Hawaii would coincide along with the develop the Pacific Golden Plover (Pluvialis fulva) additionally, the Bristle-thighed Curlew (Numenius tahitiensis). It is additionally belief that Polynesians employed shore-sighting birds as did many seafaring peoples. One theory is they might taken a frigatebird (Fregata) along with them. These birds won't allow land within the water as their feathers gets waterlogged making it impossible to fly. If the voyagers thought we were holding all-around land they can have released the bird, that either fly towards land often make contact with the canoe. The peoples of one's Pacific, including Micronesians and Polynesians, developed navigating by the stars right talent. Its surmised that Polynesians imagined the heavens since interior of any dome when a star proceeded along a path which passed over certain islands. That they names a lot more than 160 stars. A navigator can have known where and when a given star rose as well as set, as well as which islands it passed directly over. Thus Polynesian navigators can have then had the oppertunity to sail toward the star they knew to generally be over their destination, and since it moved westward in time to come they'd then set their course by succeeding star which might have then moved above the target island. It is likely that your Polynesians also used wave and swell formations to navigate. A lot of the habitable facets of the Ocean are groups of islands (or atolls) in chains numerous kilometers long. Island chains have predictable effects on waves in addition, on currents. Navigators who lived quickly category of islands would educate yourself on the effect various islands had to their shape, direction, and motion and could have been in the position to correct their path prior to the modifications they perceived. Once they come to the vicinity on the chain of islands they were new to, they often are already prepared to transfer their experience and deduce that they are nearing some islands. Every time they had arrived fairly all-around a destination island, they can happen to have been rrn a position to pinpoint its location by sightings of land-based birds, certain cloud formations, besides the reflections shallow water made within the undersides of clouds. It's considered the Polynesian navigators can have measured the time it loved sail between islands in "canoe-days" or maybe a similar particular expression. The main settlers of one's Hawaiian Islands are believed to own sailed in the Marquesas Islands using Polynesian navigation methods. To check this theory, the Hawaiian Polynesian Voyaging Society was established in 1973. The group built a duplicate of each ancient double-hulled canoe referred to as the Hokule'a, whose crew successfully navigated the Ocean from Hawaii to Tahiti in 1976 without instruments. In 1980, a Hawaiian named Nainoa Thompson invented an alternative technique for non instrument navigation (known as the "modern Hawaiian wayfinding system"), enabling him to perform the voyage from Hawaii to Tahiti and back. In 1987, a Mori named Matahi Whakataka (Greg Brightwell) and the mentor Francis Cowan sailed from Tahiti to Aotearoa without instruments. Polynesian navigation methods are actually classified into three, non instrument satnav systems: the Taumakoan, Modern Hawaiian, and Modern Mori.[citation needed] Notes ^ Wilford, John Noble (2007-06-05). "First Chickens in Americas Were Brought From Polynesia". Los angeles Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/05/science/05chic.html?_r=1&adxnnl=1&oref=slogin&adxnnlx=1181091707-e+ZDVqnF+pbc2icNHD+SfQ. Retrieved 2007-06-06. ^ Sharp 1963, p. 122-128. ^ a b c Finney 1963, p. 5. ^ Whipps, Heather (June 4, 2007). "Chicken Bones Suggest Polynesians Found Americas Before Columbus". Live Science. http://www.livescience.com/history/070604_polynesian_chicken.html. Retrieved 2007-06-05. ^ "Polynesians beat Spaniards to The philipines, study shows" by Thomas H. Maugh II, California Times, 5 June 2007 ^ Storey et al., " Radiocarbon and DNA evidence in a pre-Columbian introduction of Polynesian chickens to Chile" (abstract, full article available through subscription), Proceedings of the Nas 10.1073/pnas.0703993104, 7 June 2007 ^ Indo-European and Asian origins for Chilean and Pacific chickens revealed by mtDNA. Jaime Gongora, Nicolas J. Rawlence, Victor A. Mobegi, Han Jianlin, Jose A. Alcalde, Jose T. Matus, Olivier Hanotte, Chris Moran, J. Austin, Sean Ulm,
canucks store, Atholl J. Anderson, Greger Larson and Alan Cooper, "Indo-European and Asian origins for Chilean and Pacific chickens revealed by mtDNA" PNAS July 29, 2008 vol. 105 no 30 ^ Kirch, Patrick V. Background to Pacific Archaeology and Prehistory,
mac makeup wholesale, Oceanic Archaeology Laboratory, Univ. California, Berkeley. ^ "Rapa Nui" (in Spanish). http://www.rapanuivalparaiso.cl/arque_olog.htm#ar5. Retrieved 2007-06-05. ^ Sharp 1963, p. 16. ^ Sharp 1963. ^ Lewis 1976. ^ Finney 1963, p. 6-9. ^ See also: Polynesian Voyaging Society, Hokulea. ^ a b c d Gatty 1999. References Finney, Ben R (1963), "New, Non-Armchair Research", in Finney, Ben R, Pacific Navigation and Voyaging, The Polynesian Society Inc. . Finney, Ben R, ed. (1976), Pacific Navigation and Voyaging, The Polynesian Society Inc. . Gatty, Harold (1999), Finding Your Ways Without Map or Compass, Dover Publications, Inc., ISBN 0-486-40613-X . Lewis, David (1963), "A Return Voyage Between Puluwat and Saipan Using Micronesian Navigational Techniques", in Finney, Ben R,
mac brushes, Pacific Navigation and Voyaging, The Polynesian Society Inc. . Lewis, David (1994), We the Navigtors:the traditional art of Landfinding inside Pacific, University of Hawaii Press Inc. . Kayser, M.; Brauer, S.; Weiss, G.; Underhill, P.A.; Roewer, L.; Schiefenhfel, W.; Stoneking, M. (2000), Melanesian Origin of Polynesian Y Chromosomes, 10, Current Biology . Kayser, M.; Brauer, S.; Weiss, G.; Underhill, P.A.; Roewer, L.; Schiefenhfel, W.; Stoneking, M. (2000), Melanesian Origin of Polynesian Y Chromosomes, 11, Current Biology . Sharp, Andrew (1963), Ancient Voyagers in Polynesia, Longman Paul Ltd. . Sutton, Douglas G. (Ed.) (1994), The Origins of your First New Zealanders,
insanity vs p90x, Auckland University Press . King, Michael (2003), Past of New Zealand, Penguin Books, ISBN 0-14-301867-1 . External links Wayfinding Summary Wayfinding Main Page Categories: Navigation
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